1 “History of Fuel Economy” (The Pew Environmental Group, 2011), https://perma.cc/7M7Y-4NLR.
2 “Summary of Fuel Economy Performance” (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2014), https://perma.cc/U4WX-5KZB.
3 Thomas H. Klier and James M. Rubenstein, “Whose Part Is it? Measuring domestic content of vehicles,” Chicago Fed Letter, no. 243 (October 2007), https://perma.cc/U8DD-7QED.
4 “Corporate Average Fuel Economy” (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration), https://perma.cc/H8ZT-89T9.
5 New York v. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, no. 19-2395 (2d Cir. 2020),https://perma.cc/JTN3-GZU6.
6 Federal Register, Vol. 77, no. 199, Oct. 15, 2012, p. 62648, https://perma.cc/Q8YX-N4NN.
7 Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, p. 12: https://perma.cc/6VUK-T59X.
8 Lucas W. Davis and Christopher R. Knittel, “Are Fuel Economy Standards Regressive?” (MIT Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, 2016), Working Paper 2016-016, 8, https://perma.cc/HY25-RDYV.
9 “The Economic Cost of Fuel Economy Standards Versus a Gasoline Tax” (Congressional Budget Office, December 2003), https://perma.cc/E4PB-64SA.
10 “Fact #693: September 19, 2011, Average Vehicle Footprint for Cars and Light Trucks” (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy), https://perma.cc/7Q9M-U3AE.
11 Mark R. Jacobsen, “U.S. Fuel Economy Standards: Economics and Efficiency” (Stanford University Energy Seminar, Nov. 17, 2014), https://perma.cc/J2VQ-SJFL.
12 Kate S. Whitefoot and Steven J. Skerlos Skerlos (2012), “Design Incentives to Increase Vehicle Size Created From the U.S. Footprint-Based Fuel Economy Standards,” Energy Policy 41 (2012): 402-411, https://tinyurl.com/55as5fyc.
13 Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, 9, https://perma.cc/6VUK-T59X.
14 “President Obama Announces Historic 54.5 mpg Fuel Efficiency Standard” (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, July 29, 2011), https://tinyurl.com/5y6ce5dp.
15 Timothy Puko and Katy Stech Ferek, “U.S. Sets 55-Mile-a-Gallon Fuel-Efficiency Standard for 2026 Models” (The Wall Street Journal, Dec. 20, 2021), https://perma.cc/L5SD-WQVU.
16 Timothy Puko and Katy Stech Ferek, “U.S. Sets 55-Mile-a-Gallon Fuel-Efficiency Standard for 2026 Models” (The Wall Street Journal, Dec. 20, 2021), https://perma.cc/L5SD-WQVU.
17 “History of Fuel Economy” (The Pew Environmental Group, 2011), https://perma.cc/7M7Y-4NLR.
18 “Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards” (National Research Council, 2002), https://tinyurl.com/23zf7z7s.
19 “Timeline: The Tumultuous 155-Year History of Oil Prices” (Business Insider, Dec. 20, 2016), https://perma.cc/A9ME-H37B. The U.S. Energy Information Administration used to have an oil price chronology, but it appears no longer be available.
20 “2018 Automotive Trends Report: Section 2: Tables” (Environmental Protection Agency), Table 3.1, https://tinyurl. com/yfhhywnn.
21 Julian Morris, “The Effect of Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards on Consumers” (Reason Foundation, April 1, 2018), https://perma.cc/6Y6L-YU6C.
22 “Obama Administration Finalizes Historic 54.5 MPG Fuel Efficiency Standards” (The White House, Aug. 28, 2012, https://perma.cc/6F3H-S5MU.
23 “Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards” (National Research Council, 2002), 7, https://tinyurl.com/23zf7z7s.
24 “Obama Administration Finalizes Historic 54.5 MPG Fuel Efficiency Standards” (The White House, Aug. 28, 2012, https://perma.cc/6F3H-S5MU.
25 “The 2018 EPA Automotive Trends Report: Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Fuel Economy, and Technology Since 1976” (Environmental Protection Agency, 2018), Appendix C, https://perma.cc/5G4W-MR48.
26 “Most Important Problem” (Gallup, December 2019), https://perma.cc/BRU9-B4JG. “Fuel/Oil prices” was mentioned by less than 0.5% of respondents.
27 Robert W. Crandall “Why Should We Regulate Fuel Economy at All?” The Brookings Review, 3, no. 3 (1985): 3-7, https://perma.cc/FLY2-6Y7A.
28 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Evaluating U.S. Fuel Economy Standards in a Model with Producer and Household Heterogeneity,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5, no. 2 (2013):178, https://perma.cc/S96Q-EZSK.
29 Bruce Yandle, “Fuel Efficiency by Government Mandate: A Cost-Benefit Analysis,” Policy Analysis 6, no. 3 (1980): 291-304, https://perma.cc/4UTZ-H6EN.
30 “Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards” (National Research Council, 2002), 111, https://perma.cc/RU4Y-5RWS.
31 “Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards” (National Research Council, 2002), 13, https://perma.cc/RU4Y-5RWS.
32 Pinelopi Koujianou Goldberg, “The Effects of Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency Standards in the U.S.,” The Journal of Industrial Economics 46, no. 1 (1998): 1-33, https://perma.cc/QJV7-53EE.
33 Robert W. Crandall, “Policy Watch: Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards,” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 6, no. 2 (1992): 171-180, https://perma.cc/QZ8N-47DZ. See Table 2. I assume that consumption is 130 billion gallons per year, consistent with Pinelopi Koujianou Goldberg, “The Effects of Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency Standards in the U.S.,” The Journal of Industrial Economics 46, no. 1 (1998): 1-33, https://perma.cc/QJV7-53EE.
34 Andrew Kleit (1990), “The Effect of Annual Changes in Automobile Fuel Economy Standards,” Journal of Regulatory Economics 2 (1990): 151-172, https://tinyurl.com/yckkr58p.
35 “The Economic Cost of Fuel Economy Standards Versus a Gasoline Tax” (Congressional Budget Office, December 2003), https://perma.cc/E4PB-64SA.
36 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Evaluating U.S. Fuel Economy Standards in a Model with Producer and Household Heterogeneity,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5, no. 2 (2013): 148-187, https://perma.cc/S96Q-EZSK.
37 Lucas Davis, “Automakers Complain, But CAFE Loopholes Make Standards Easier to Meet” (Energy Institute at Haas, April 11, 2016), https://perma.cc/A2H5-WHEK.
38 Lucas Davis, “Automakers Complain, But CAFE Loopholes Make Standards Easier to Meet” (Energy Institute at Haas, April 11, 2016), https://perma.cc/A2H5-WHEK.
39 Lucas W. Davis and Christopher R. Knittel, “Are Fuel Economy Standards Regressive?” (MIT Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, 2016), Working Paper 2016-016, http://tinyurl.com/5n8r7y9h.
40 Soren T. Anderson and James M. “Using Loopholes to Reveal the Marginal Cost of Regulation: The Case of Fuel-Economy Standards,” American Economic Review 101, no. 4 (2011): 1375-1409, https://perma.cc/678Z-4ZDN.
41 Soren T. Anderson and James M. “Using Loopholes to Reveal the Marginal Cost of Regulation: The Case of Fuel-Economy Standards,” American Economic Review 101, no. 4 (2011): 1399, https://perma.cc/678Z-4ZDN.
42 Soren T. Anderson and James M. “Using Loopholes to Reveal the Marginal Cost of Regulation: The Case of Fuel-Economy Standards,” American Economic Review 101, no. 4 (2011): 1398, https://perma.cc/678Z-4ZDN.
43 Soren T. Anderson and James M. “Using Loopholes to Reveal the Marginal Cost of Regulation: The Case of Fuel-Economy Standards,” American Economic Review 101, no. 4 (2011): 1388, https://perma.cc/678Z-4ZDN.
44 Soren T. Anderson and James M. “Using Loopholes to Reveal the Marginal Cost of Regulation: The Case of Fuel-Economy Standards,” American Economic Review 101, no. 4 (2011): 1388, https://perma.cc/678Z-4ZDN.
45 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Evaluating U.S. Fuel Economy Standards in a Model with Producer and Household Heterogeneity,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5, no. 2 (2013):178, https://perma.cc/S96Q-EZSK.
46 Kate Whitefoot, Meredith Fowlie, and Steven Skerlos, “Product Design Responses to Industrial Policy: Evaluating Fuel Economy Standards Using an Engineering Model of Endogenous Product Design,” Semantic Scholar (2011), https://tinyurl.com/2p8u6uu7.
47 Richard S.J. Tol, “The Marginal damage costs of carbon dioxide emissions: an assessment of the uncertainties,” Energy Policy 33, no. 16 (2005): 2064-2074, https://tinyurl.com/cr26yzt3.
48 William D. Nordhaus and Joseph Boyer. “Warming the World: Economic Models of Global Warming” (Cambridge and London: MIT Press, 2000). Nordhaus and Boyer estimated $20 per ton in 2005, which is adjusted to 2019 dollars using the Consumer Price Index.
49 “Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards” (National Research Council, 2002), 4, https://tinyurl.com/23zf7z7s.
50 Mark R. Jacobsen, “U.S. Fuel Economy Standards: Economics and Efficiency” (Stanford University Energy Seminar, Nov. 17, 2014), https://perma.cc/J2VQ-SJFL.
51 Mark R. Jacobsen, “U.S. Fuel Economy Standards: Economics and Efficiency” (Stanford University Energy Seminar, Nov. 17, 2014), https://perma.cc/J2VQ-SJFL.
52 Kate Whitefoot, Meredith Fowlie, and Steven Skerlos, “Product Design Responses to Industrial Policy: Evaluating Fuel Economy Standards Using an Engineering Model of Endogenous Product Design,” Semantic Scholar (2011), https://tinyurl.com/2p8u6uu7.
53 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Evaluating U.S. Fuel Economy Standards in a Model with Producer and Household Heterogeneity,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5, no. 2 (2013): 148-187, https://perma.cc/S96Q-EZSK.
54 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Evaluating U.S. Fuel Economy Standards in a Model with Producer and Household Heterogeneity,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5, no. 2 (2013): 148-187, https://perma.cc/S96Q-EZSK.
55 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Evaluating U.S. Fuel Economy Standards in a Model with Producer and Household Heterogeneity,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5, no. 2 (2013): 148-187, https://perma.cc/S96Q-EZSK.
56 “Automotive Trends Report: Download Data for the Automotive Trends Report” (Environmental Protection Agency), Table 3.1, https://tinyurl.com/yw732u8y.
57 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Evaluating U.S. Fuel Economy Standards in a Model with Producer and Household Heterogeneity,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5, no. 2 (2013): 175, Table 7,https://perma.cc/S96Q-EZSK.
58 obert W. Crandall, “Policy Watch: Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards,” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 6, no. 2 (1992): 171-180, Table 2, https://perma.cc/QZ8N-47DZ.
59 Andrew N. Kleit, “Impacts of Long-Range Increases in the Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standard,” Economic Inquiry 42, no. 2 (2004): 290, https://tinyurl.com/vvfzdknh.
60 Thomas Klier and Joshua Linn (2012), “New-Vehicle Characteristics and the Cost of the Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard,” RAND Journal of Economics 43, no. 1 (2012): 186-213, https://perma.cc/TQ7L-DYTC.
61 “Personal consumption expenditures: New autos, 1947-01-01 to 2022-01-01” (Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis), https://perma.cc/8FYM-RHQX.
62 “The Economic Cost of Fuel Economy Standards Versus a Gasoline Tax” (Congressional Budget Office, December 2003), 18, Table 3.1, https://perma.cc/E4PB-64SA.
63 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Evaluating U.S. Fuel Economy Standards in a Model with Producer and Household Heterogeneity,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5, no. 2 (2013): 174, Table 6,https://perma.cc/S96Q-EZSK.
64 Thomas Klier and Joshua Linn, “New-Vehicle Characteristics and the Cost of the Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard,” RAND Journal of Economics 43, no. 1 (2012): Table 6, 207, https://perma.cc/TQ7L-DYTC.
65 Mark R. Jacobsen and Arthur A. van Benthem, “Vehicle Scrappage and Gasoline Policy,” American Economic Review 105, no. 3 (2015): 1312-1338, https://perma.cc/4V6G-ZY77.
66 Mark R. Jacobsen and Arthur A. van Benthem, “Vehicle Scrappage and Gasoline Policy,” American Economic Review 105, no. 3 (2015): 1333, Table 6, https://perma.cc/4V6G-ZY77.
67 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Evaluating U.S. Fuel Economy Standards in a Model with Producer and Household Heterogeneity,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5, no. 2 (2013): 176, Table 8,https://perma.cc/S96Q-EZSK.
68 Lucas W. Davis and Christopher R. Knittel, “Are Fuel Economy Standards Regressive?” (MIT Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, 2016), 20, Figure 7, http://tinyurl.com/5n8r7y9h.
69 Kenneth A. Small and Kurt Van Dender, “Fuel Efficiency and Motor Vehicle Travel: The Declining Rebound Effect,” Energy Journal 28, no. 1 (2007): 25-51, https://perma.cc/Z42B-EWQN.
70 Paul R. Portney, Ian W.H. Parry, Howard K. Gruenspecht, and Winston Harrington, “Policy Watch: The Economics of Fuel Economy Standards,” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 17, no. 4 (2003): 211, https://perma.cc/4J4W-UD9U.
71 Thomas Klier and Joshua Linn, “Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards and the Market for New Vehicles,” Annual Review of Resource Economics 3 (2011): 445-462, https://perma.cc/VHS5-XM62.
72 Mark R. Jacobsen and Arthur A. van Benthem, “Vehicle Scrappage and Gasoline Policy,” American Economic Review 105, no. 3 (2015): 1334, https://perma.cc/4V6G-ZY77.
73 “Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards” (National Research Council, 2002), 86, https://tinyurl.com/23zf7z7s.
74 Mark R. Jacobsen, “U.S. Fuel Economy Standards: Economics and Efficiency” (Stanford University Energy Seminar, Nov. 17, 2014), https://perma.cc/J2VQ-SJFL.
75 Ian W.H. Parry, Margaret Walls, and Winston Harrington, “Automobile Externalities and Policies,” Journal of Economic Literature 45, no. 2 (2007): 384, Table 2, https://perma.cc /ZNX6-UYED.
76 Ian W.H. Parry, Margaret Walls, and Winston Harrington, “Automobile Externalities and Policies,” Journal of Economic Literature 45, no. 2 (2007): 384, Table 2, https://perma.cc /ZNX6-UYED.
77 Andrew N. Kleit, “Impacts of Long-Range Increases in the Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standard,” Economic Inquiry 42, no. 2 (2004): Table 6, https://tinyurl.com/vvfzdknh.
78 Paul R. Portney, Ian W.H. Parry, Howard K. Gruenspecht, and Winston Harrington, “Policy Watch: The Economics of Fuel Economy Standards,” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 17, no. 4 (2003): 211, https://perma.cc/4J4W-UD9U.
79 “Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards” (National Research Council, 2002), 28, https://tinyurl.com/23zf7z7s.
80 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Fuel Economy, Car Class Mix, and Safety,” American Economic Review 101, no. 3 (2011): 105-109, https://perma.cc/F2M3-G5PZ.
81 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Fuel Economy, Car Class Mix, and Safety,” American Economic Review, 101, no. 3 (2011): Table 1, https://perma.cc/F2M3-G5PZ.
82 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Fuel Economy, Car Class Mix, and Safety,” American Economic Review, 101, no. 3 (2011): 105, https://perma.cc/F2M3-G5PZ.
83 Thomas Klier and Joshua Linn, “Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards and the Market for New Vehicles,” Annual Review of Resource Economics 3 (2011): 451, https://perma.cc/VHS5-XM62.
84 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Evaluating U.S. Fuel Economy Standards in a Model with Producer and Household Heterogeneity,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5, no. 2 (2013): 177, https://perma.cc/S96Q-EZSK.
85 Robert W. Crandall, “Policy Watch: Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards,” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 6, no. 2 (1992): 171-180, https://perma.cc/QZ8N-47DZ.
86 Robert W. Crandall, “Policy Watch: Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards,” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 6, no. 2 (1992): 178, https://perma.cc/QZ8N-47DZ.
87 Andrew N. Kleit, “Impacts of Long-Range Increases in the Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standard,” Economic Inquiry 42, no. 2 (2004): 279-294, https://tinyurl.com/vvfzdknh.
88 Thomas Klier and Joshua Linn, “New-Vehicle Characteristics and the Cost of the Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard,” RAND Journal of Economics 43, no. 1 (2012): 207, Table 6, https://perma.cc/TQ7L-DYTC; Mark R. Jacobsen, “Evaluating U.S. Fuel Economy Standards in a Model with Producer and Household Heterogeneity,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5, no. 2 (2013): 174, Table 6,https://perma.cc/S96Q-EZSK.
89 Mark R. Jacobsen, “U.S. Fuel Economy Standards: Economics and Efficiency” (Stanford University Energy Seminar, Nov. 17, 2014), https://perma.cc/J2VQ-SJFL.
90 “What is the Highway Trust Fund, and how is it financed?” (Tax Policy Center), https://perma.cc/US5F-WEUK.
91 Thomas Klier and Joshua Linn, “Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards and the Market for New Vehicles,” Annual Review of Resource Economics 3 (2011): 445-462, https://perma.cc/VHS5-XM62. Table 1 on pp. 457-458 gives estimates on the cost of CAFE standards from different studies.
92 “Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards” (National Research Council, 2002), 111, https://tinyurl.com/23zf7z7s.
93 6 Clever Ways the Car Industry Has Gamed the CAFE Fuel Economy Standards,” Popular Mechanics, June 30, 2011, https://perma.cc/268M-RF6G.
94 Mark R. Jacobsen, “Fuel Economy, Car Class Mix, and Safety,” American Economic Review, 101, no. 3 (2011): 108, https://perma.cc/F2M3-G5PZ.